Letter from hospital

I thought I should write to let you know IM safe and IM recovering. I miss you and the rest give everyone a hug from me and tell Rosier I hope she's being good. The hospital Is constantly got new soldiers coming In suffering from nervous exhaustion and shell shock too so IM not the only one, the doctor said It Is an Injury to the nerves and told me to rest and they are putting In place electric shock treatment.All the nurses are very sympathetic but sometimes when they think we can't hear them they call us all weak and say we are cowards. Im not suffering as much as most, a young gentleman has been learning to walk again yet he still wants to get back to the frontline. Yes, am returning to the frontline soon so that's why I took this opportunity to write. We had strict orders not to take prisoners, no matter if wounded my first Job was when I had finished cutting some of their wire away, to empty my magazine on 3 errands that came out of one of their deep dugouts they was bleeding ba dly begging for them to be put out of their misery.They cried for mercy, but I had my orders, they had no feeling what so ever for us†¦ It makes my head Jump to think about It. One time I was In serious danger I was almost completely paralyses with fear. I was slating with Taylor (a fellow soldier) on the fire-step of a trench during an intense bombardment,when it seemed certain that we must be killed at any moment. Shots fired around us; each moment threatened to be the last. I was conscious of biting the fabric on my top to prevent my teeth from chattering.If I had been alone on that occasion I believe that I would be dead now; it was the presence of others that saved me. It's not all been like that, one evening me and Owen was in the barracks and I received a letter from you for my birthday and it kept me going for so long, but everyone has a breaking point: weak or strong, courageous or cowardly- war frightens everyone my breaking point has now unfortunately came. Give my l ove to everyone, Yours sincerely

Supply Chain Management and Zara

Zara Case Analysis Operations Management MBM1110 Table of Contents Executive Summary 3 Introduction 3 Outstanding Operational strategies Layout 4 Forecasting 5 Product life cycle 5 Product Design and Supply Chain Management Marketing 5 Just in time 6 Vertical Integration 6 Incorporation of Bershka Conclusion 7 Bibliography 8 Executive Summary Zara, a flagship chain store of the Inditex group owned by Spanish business tycoon Amancio Ortega is one of the top names in the mid-priced fashion industry. Zara was established in 1975 in Acoruna, Galicia, Spain and has expanded to 1395 stores all across the globe.It is said that Zara, unlike any other retail organization in the clothing industry takes just two weeks to design, develop and get a new product into the stores. However, the retail industry has a six month average to do so. By using its operational strategies in a very successful manner, Zara is able to launch 10,000 new products every year. This report will discuss the operational strategies that Zara uses which works as order winners and order qualifiers. It also discusses the strategies that they use which makes them one of the top names in the fashion industry.Introduction Zara uses very innovative strategies for its business. By doing so, Zara is able to avoid outsourcing its manufacturing proce ss to low cost and developing countries like most of the other companies in the industry. Zara does not even spend a lot of money on marketing, hence increases its profit margin. It however does spend on the layout of its stores. Unlike many of its competitors, Zara is a vertically integrated retailer since it controls most of the step in it supply chain by designing, producing and distributing itself.This unique business model has resulted in the emergence of one of the most successful retailers in the fashion industry. Terry Hill in 1993 came up with the terms ? order qualifiers? and ? order winners? , against which it is believed that manufacturing strategy should be determined (Add Reff. Hill, T. (1993), Manufacturing Strategy: Text and Cases, 2nd ed. , Macmillan Press, London. ). Order Winners are characteristics that serve as a competitive advantage for one firm over others.Order winners enable the customers to choose a particular firms goods and services over the competitors. Order winners in this case for Zara are: y High-end fashion at a reasonable price Even though Zara ¶s products are highly fashionable, they comparatively cost way less compared to other big names in the fashion industry Supply Chain Management y As discussed below in the report, due to Zara ¶s outstanding SCM, it is able to order order the latest in fashion every two weeks for a reasonable price. Thus, are able to offer something to their clients that none of their competitors can.Order qualifiers are the competitive characteristics that a firm must take advantage of in order to be a viable competitor in the market place. To provide order qualifiers, companies need only to be in par with the competitors, however, in order to provide with order winners, companies need to be way better than its competition. Having said that, order qualifiers are in no way less important than the order winners, in fact, they both complement each other. In Zara ¶s case the order qualifiers are: y Quality They offer good quality products at relatively cheaper price compared to the competition.Outstanding Operational strategies While Zara maybe a very successful high end retailer, the main facet of Zara that has got academics buzzing is its completely novel approach to its operations and supply chain for a retailer in high-end fashion. Layout The main intention of a layout strategy is to develop an economically viable layout that will be in line with the company ¶s Competitive requirements (Render & Heizer, 2005). Zara invests a lot in their store layouts to make sure that their store maintains the fresh and trendy look.They have a testing facility close to their head office in Spain, where they test different types of store layouts on a regular basis. Zara remodels each of its stores every five years in order to keep up with the current trends (Zara ¶s Business Model, 2010). The entire layout, including the furniture and the window displays are all designed at the testin g facility in order to maintain a standardized image globally. A flying team from the head office usually flies down to a new location to set up the store. Their motto is that they want the store managers to focus more on sales than anything else.Zara can afford to do this since they do not spend lot advertising and marketing campaigns. Forecasting One of Zara ¶s major competitive advantage over other retailers is it technique of forecasting. Unlike, other retailers, Zara has developed its business model around reacting promptly. Zara focuses heavily on its forecasting effort on the amount and the type of fabric it will purchase. Zara tends to do this since it ¶s usually cheaper to rectify mistakes on raw fabric as compared to a finished product. It also uses the same fabric to produce something else (Render & Heizer, 2005).Zara usually buys un-processed fabric and colors it according to the season based on market ¶s immediate need. By doing that, and by combining it with a hi gh-speed garment design & production process, it ¶s able to the deliver what the market is actually looking for at that time. Product life cycle In a typical Product Life Cycle Curve of the fashion retail industry, sales decreases as products move across the times line. However, Zara ¶s Product Life Cycle Curve is totally the other way round since it is in a high fashion industry and it offers products that are of the latest trends and designs with a life of maximum 5-6 weeks.Product Design and Supply Chain Management The entire process of product design is very unique compared to its competitors. Commercial managers and designers at Zara start working on the design of the fabric, the costs, raw material, selling price etc as soon as they receive the instructions from the Zara stores. Instructions are issued to cut appropriate fabric as soon as approvals are received. All the raw materials are distributed for assembly to a network of small family owned businesses that are mostly in Glacia and in Northern Portugal.Unlike its competitors, Zara ¶s high-tech distribution services system ensures that there is no style lying around at the head office. The finished products are quickly cleared through the distribution centers and are shipped to the stores within 48 hours. Deliveries ¶ are received twice a week by each store. This entire process of product design and supply chain management gives Zara a huge edge over its competitors. Marketing Zara has a very unique approach to marketing compared to the other big players in the industry.Unlike its competition, which spends 3-4 % of total revenues on marketing and advertising campaigns, Zara spends 0. 3%. This is a major competitive advantage over its competitors. Zara strategically locates all of their stores in prime retail districts for  µvisibility marketing ¶. As mentioned earlier about the product development cycles, customers are rendered immune to visit Zara stores very often since new items are st ocked weekly and are often not re-stocked. Zara creates a feeling of scarcity within the customers, and this makes them come back to the store frequently and make purchases.Just in time Just-in-time (JIT) is a strategy that is used for inventory management in such a way that it helps a business improve its return on investment by reducing in-process inventory and the associated carrying costs (Shingo, 1989). Zara follows a true JIT inventory system. Its inventory system is influenced by the pull of the customer instead of a push from the designer. This helps Zara to have a competitive advantage over the competition since it has a very low inventory to sales ratio. Vertical IntegrationZara is a very vertically integrated company by working through the whole value chain and is highly capital intensive. This is a unique model that let the company develop a strong merchandising strategy that led it to create a unique model of fast fashion system (Craig, Jones, & Nieto, 2004). Incorporat ion of Bershka Most big brands in the world regardless of the industry they are in usually have more than one brand name. In the fashion retail industry, Gap Inc. Owns few big names as Gap itself, Old Navy, Club Monaco, etc. It is a strategy used to penetrate different segments of a market and to increase the market share.It also tries to give consumers an impression that different brand names have something different about them. Companies also use the is strategy to create a specific brand for each and every market they try to target. Inditex has also used the strategy of penetrating different segments of the market by creating a different brand name for each segment (Inditex Annual Report, 2008). Inditex owns different brands such as Zara, Massimo Dutti, Pull and Bear and Bershka which tends to cater to different markets. Merging all of these brands or any two brands into one name would not make a lot of business sense for Bershka.The brand Bershka was launched by Inditex in the y ear 1998 with an aim of targeting the young fashion-conscious crowd. Incorporating Bershka into Zara ¶s operations would not be a very good strategic move for Inditex. Bershka currently owns 638 stores in 41 different countries, hence incorporating that in to Zara ¶s operations would raise lot of challenges for Inditex. Since Bershka and Zara both have a very different target market, formulating strategies for both of these firms combined will definitely effect the operations of the company in whole. Both brand names have established different clientele for themselves.Bershka currently targets the young and fashionable and Zara targets the fashionable crowd as well, however it has different demographics for it. Combining these two brands into one will result in loss of loyal customers and might also impact the company negatively. There ¶s no guarantee that Bershka ¶s existing clientele will shift to Zara, in fact they might just end up losing majority of that segment. Zara ¶s market share might increase by a very small percentage; however Bershka might end up losing a major chunk of its current clientele, which in turn will not be good for Inditex in whole. Conclusion Read also: Advantages and Disadvantages of Administrative Management

Change Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Change Management - Assignment Example The postal organization specializes in courier and express services (Australian Government, 2011). The organization is trying to expand business in the field of retail merchandise and agency services. Traditional postal service business had become unprofitable in last few years. The concept of traditional postal communication has changed due to evolution of email communication, social networking. People prefer to use internet communication rather than traditional postal services. The postal organization has incurred a loss of $90 million in last 5 years. Australian Post is trying to change business strategy in terms of shifting focus on retail Merchandise and agency Services. They need to manage the change process carefully. Change management will help them to build a strong organizational framework. Change Management Change management tries to integrate different systems and structure with the organizational structure of the company. Change management can be applied in the transitio n phase of the organization. A company can go for whole system change or partial system change. Many organizations use ADKAR change management model to improve productivity. Dupont is a well known chemical company of USA. They used the model to implement change management in the production process. ADKAR model can be explained in the following way. A- Awareness is generated for change. Top management of the company identifies problem areas like staff productivity, poor service delivery, poor annual sales volume and low productivity of existing system. The management then decides to change existing process. D- Existing employees express desire to participate in change process. They can be termed as change agents. K- Knowledge in terms of training and development is given to the change agents. The knowledge process helps them to understand key issues of new system. A- This is the application part of change management. In this phase organization starts to use new implemented system. Or ganization takes external help to implement new system. The external system monitors the application phase. Coaching and mentoring are required to manage change agents. R- Organization tries to reinforce the sustainability factor. Companies try to maintain the new implemented system. They try to analyze the result of change management in this phase. Change management is a dynamic process. Organization can implement change management program in various areas like marketing, production process, financial management system and organizational structure. Change management can be implemented by altering the thinking process of existing employees. It is very difficult to find employees who accept change very successfully. The organization needs to select change agents ready to accept new system. Service based models like changing customer relationship management requires rigorous training and development program. Top level management needs to communicate with change agents regularly. Study shows that at least 15 engagements are required to clarify the objectives of top management (University of Pennsylvania, 2010). Change Management in Australia Post Australia Post has business expertise in the field of postal services (like letter and parcel delivery, courier services). The organization is trying to expand business in the field of third party agency services like banking, bill payment, insurance, passport application and

Marketing Mix of Louis Vuitton Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marketing Mix of Louis Vuitton - Assignment Example The service period which he spent with the emperor introduced him to the styles of elite and the royal clientele who enjoyed his services even after his death. The Louis Vuitton Malletier (LVM) was established in 1854 in Paris, which is now considered the world-renowned lifestyle brand dealing in luxury leather (Louis Vuitton, 2013). The success story of the brand clearly reflects that it was not a coincidence rather Louis Vuitton achieved this peak position in the business world through the use of perfect marketing strategies (Peter Finocchiaro, 2010). LVM has always been very creative in introducing new products, since the start it has been catering to the needs the customers with the supreme quality services. LVM has been successfully using the marketing mix which led the company to acquire the second place in the Luxury Marketer Awards of 2010. The brand has utilized the multichannel strategies which have bridged the gap between history and status of French Fashion (Peter Finocch iaro, 2010) as per the BBC News LVM has increased its sales in the first three months of 2011 by 17%. Researchers have given the credit of successful operations of LVM to its Marketing Mix (Catarina Duque, 2012). After the selection of the target market the prime concern of the management is to set the principles for marketing mix which is a combination of product strategies, pricing strategies, placing strategies and promotion strategies. These all are formulated on the basis of the preferences of target market.

The role of Theories and Principles in Education for Work - My Essay

The role of Theories and Principles in Education for Work - My Philosophy as a lecturer - Essay Example It therefore aims at achieving comprehensive and general results (Phillips 2009) The scope of philosophy of education Aims and ideals of education philosophy Education evaluates critically the different ideals and aims of education. The various philosophers have propagated these in the different times. They are man making, character building, preparation for adult life, utilization of leisure, training for the international living, achieving national and social integration education for all among others (Phillips 2009). Interpretation of human nature- A philosophical picture of the nature of human is a result of facts that are borrowed from human science with values discussed in the different normative sciences. Educational values- value is a philosophical subject as it is more integral, abstract and universal. Theory of knowledge- There is a relationship between education and knowledge. This is determined by the limits, criteria, source, and the means of knowledge. These fall within the epistemology’s jurisdiction. Relationship existing in education and the different areas of national life and the different components of the education system- Philosophy provides the criteria for deciding relationship of economic system and education, state and education school organization curriculum and management among others (Phillips 2009). ... It also prepares young generation to face challenges of modern time (Phillips 2009) Issue of power, otherness, and democracy The issue of power comes in where the political power provides the policies in education system. The leadership in the institution has also the powers to change the teaching methods applied by an individual lecturer. The issue of otherness is also applicable when finding a civil space for sharing different commonalities of people based on understanding that the people need to learn to live with otherness of others whose of being might be threatening deeply to their own. The issue of democracy is seen where students are seen as a significant group of population in the institution. Lecturers and other staff members are also recognized in the institution (Haynes 2009) Explain the main philosophical thoughts and theories of education Constructivism It is because we tend to construct our own perspective of the world through schema and individual experiences. Radical constructivism by Ernst Von Glaserfeld has been the most influential (Glaserfeld 1995, 2007). The main element in constructivism is that knowledge is not discovered or found but rather it is constructed or made by humans. This have however been interpreted by different groups of constructivists differently. Kant (1959) states that â€Å"But though all of our knowledge begins with experience, it does not follow that it all arises out of experience. For it may well be that even our empirical knowledge is made up of what we receive through impressions and of what our own faculty of knowledge †¦ supplies from itself.† Several issues arise from this: first there is the question of whether it is credible enough to believe that whatever we have

General Background for business plan Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

General Background for business plan - Thesis Example She considered the idea that construction litigation is in need of forensic experts in terms of mitigating claims for damages and other construction management services, and from there she founded CSI. The Owner & Management Team: Lily Iftner CSI is currently owned by Lily Iftner, a licensed civil engineer. She is also the brainchild of the business whose background includes a four-year experience in a construction site wherein she served as an insurance investigator. With motivation, she started her own business wherein she becomes one of the expert witnesses in terms of structure damages, and legal disputes in construction methods and materials. Because of the growing demand and changes in the industry, she needs to hire diverse construction professionals in order to deliver quality research, inspection, analysis, and report. The management team is composed of professionally licensed forensic engineers, particularly civil engineers with hands-on experience about scientific and prof essional structural issues. CSI Seattle Services CSI services are all about research, inspection, analysis, and report of construction and structural deficiencies in compliance with the standards and laws applicable. They serve in order to mitigate claims for damages in a quality and cost-effective way. ... CSI also presents sets of solutions so that clients can select the best possible solutions with corresponding evidences. They are also a â€Å"strong advocate of continuing education and community involvement, and maintain active participation in local construction industry organizations† particularly in Seattle (â€Å"Who We Are†). THE BUSINESS: Business Description According to Winkler and Chiumento â€Å"construction litigation can arise from any number of sources including delay claims, construction defects, professional liability allegations (errors and omissions), mechanics’ liens, personal injury, property damage, and insurance, subrogation, or professional bond claims† (179). Based on industry expert, construction litigation is growing and in demand considering that it now takes $5 billion USD in conflicts resolution and these costs are increasing 10% each year (Michel). This quantitative data is such an advantage for CSI considering that their cli ents would settle on larger amounts just for this dispute prevention and resolution. Definitely, the groundwork of this business is trust. The more the clients trust the business the better, for they will continue to seek the services the business offered. Value Proposition (s) Competition is always present in almost all business industries nowadays. And in order to survive, the business must develop value propositions which will create a strong gap between the company and the competitors. Value Proposition 1: CSI employed construction professionals who are highly equipped with experience and academic credentials - To have skillful employees suitable for the business, CSI developed specialized training and professional development which is

Differences Between Football and Baseball Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Differences Between Football and Baseball - Essay Example Baseball was most popular in the 1950s and the period prior. The Yankees were always the best during baseball leagues (Rogers, 2012). They always won the first position. The Cleveland Indians took the second place and the Chicago White Sox mostly took the third place. Baseball, however, evolved in the ‘60s as pressure was mounted to incorporate people from other cultures (Lowenfish, 2008). There was also pressure to expand the baseball leagues from the usual eight that often played to ten teams. The teams were to increase later to twelve. Some major groups also relocate from the Northeast to the West Coast. The baseball league management also introduced a watering down of scores and points. It was successful as now teams could score more easily, but it destroyed the credentials that baseball had and lost more fans. Baseball was more like an American game watched and celebrated in America while football is a global game (Rogers, 2012). All countries have a team, and the team represents the country. The best teams are the ones that play in the final leagues. The positions are awarded on a merit basis. The best football teams globally can run their football clubs more like companies. Therefore, teams like Manchester United, Arsenal, Manchester City, Chelsea, among a few others are run like businesses and have their shares even listed on the stock exchange. The fact that investors can chip into these companies makes them be able to ‘buy’ the best players from other small teams. The small teams agree to it because they get cash in exchange that they use to try to improve their team or for costs. Football is popular because it is an international game, more of a competition and the best team wins. As teams try to fight for the championship, the game becomes more attractive, and people are lured into following it. There is also the aspect that there is always a big chunk of money to be paid to the team that

Specific Competency and Skill-building Explo Essay

Specific Competency and Skill-building Explo - Essay Example The qualities and practices that enabled him to reach this pinnacle position are the subject matter of this article. In its broadest sense, leadership is the ability to motivate people to work towards a set of objectives (Unknown, Leadership, about.com, 2008). This implies that personal goals do not interfere with the higher goals of a business on the one hand, and that the goals themselves are in tune with the corporate and ethical policies of that business. As Narayana Murthy says, â€Å"A leader is an agent of change, and progress is about change† (Murthy NR N, 2005, Essence of leadership, The Smart Manager). Corporate goals and policies are continuously upgraded by a change-agent, who if successful becomes identified with that business and assumes its leadership. This periodic up-gradation happens in the context of industry-wide changing environment, and expectations of the stakeholders. Moving through various management positions in American Express (AmEx) since joining in 1981, Kenneth Chenault is now its Chairman and CEO. AmEx is a 154 years old institution that is instantly recognized worldwide for its travel and financial services. Like Mr. Barack Obama is the first African American President-elect with ‘change’ as his main theme, Kenneth Chenault is the first African American to head one of the 30 Dow Jones Industrial Average corporations (Mara D H, 2004, Strategy: Power plays, Business Week, p.153) and is a quintessential change-agent himself. The goals that he set, the policies that he inspired, the changes that he brought about from time to time, and his ability to motivate people across cultural barriers both within the USA and across the globe – all testify the leadership skills of Kenneth Chenault. Hence it is but natural that he is heading AmEx today. When he joined as in-charge of the strategic planning division, AmEx’s main business was premium

1984 by George Orwell and Big Brother Research Paper

1984 by George Orwell and Big Brother - Research Paper Example Kellner writes, â€Å"The novel opens with evocations, frequently repeated that "BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU." Then it quickly plunges the reader into an oppressive environment where omnipresent television sets not only incessantly broadcast government propaganda but actually serve as instruments of surveillance.† The subtle aspect of Communism as perceived by George Orwell is doublespeak. The Michal Buchowski at el. writes, â€Å"Communist language was forcefully brought home to the West by George Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four, especially in his notion of â€Å"doublethink.†(p.555) What is the working style of Big Brother and his associates and superiors? Their implication is—‘we don’t say whatever we say or do is correct. But whatever correct is there in the world belongs to us! How George Orwell highlights the serious shortcomings of the hardcore communist regimes with his satirical style by taking potshots at their methods of suppression of fre ewill of the people, through the character of Big Brother in 1984? The name of the watchtower through which Big Brother and his associates function is ‘totalitarianism.’ Buchowski at el writes, â€Å"The very term totalitarianism suggests a political problem: a form of rule so total as to leave no aspect of life untouched: a form of rule that is not merely dictatorial, but holds people in its grip so thoroughly that they become its puppets.†(p.557)... But the style of functioning as portrayed by George Orwell in his book 1984 seems to have been adopted in communist countries and partially in the West. This is the issue of control of history (including the censorship on print and electronic media), surveillance and corruption of language. Those who are assigned duties in these areas seem to salute the Big Brother every day, before the commencing their duties and carry out his instructions implicitly, as for tapping phones, intercept mails, enter residences unauthorisedly etc. Language corruption is being used as an important political propaganda weapon and with full knowledge of their double meaning. The words like socialist, war criminal, racist, democratic are used, as if Satan quotes the Bible. The hero of the book, Winston Smith, employed in the Ministry of truth is engrossed in rewriting and falsifying history, as per the demands of the present regime. Big Brother has a tremendous responsibility, to control the State of Oceani a. His â€Å"thought police† have to see that friends and enemies are kept under control. Oceania is at constant war with artificially created factions. Alliances are created and discredited; what is important for the Big Brother is the perennial hysteria, and to maintain the situation of confusion and to tell the people that something dangerous is being planned against the Nation by the opposition with vested interests. George Orwell, through Big Brother, gives lots of importance to past history—for the process to undo it and suppress the facts that are inconvenient to the present (Communist) regime. The supreme objective of the party is to retain and maintain power at all times and at all costs. It uses a variety of methods to keep the population under control. â€Å"War is peace† is one

Operations Management in Manchester Airport Essay - 1

Operations Management in Manchester Airport - Essay Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that the prices for durations of parking are advertised on a large bulletin board and thus, no delays due to bill problems for passengers. The parking time at Manchester airport takes approximately 20. There is a large parking area and thus it is uncommon to miss parking space. Security inspection- with the 9/11 attacks, security in airports have been beefed up. Manchester airport is no different and it security operations through. The security procedures take about 3minutes. The delay however is worthwhile. The procedures involve a pat down and screening by X-ray machines for dangerous equipments. Those with dangerous weapons are arrested by the standby police and taken to the nearby Manchester Airport police station. The above security check is for entrance to the airport and not for boarding flights. Queuing- queuing is a security procedure as well as a measure to maintain order. Those in the queue are closely monitored by CCTV cameras whi le they line up to go and purchase or confirm tickets. This is a fundamental operation activity as it helps maintain order in the airport. The time taken in the queue depends on the number of passengers in the airport. But approximately staying in the Queue cannot take more than 10 minutes. The number of teller stations to which passengers buy or confirm tickets are many and thus efficient operation. Ticket buying and confirmation- The airport has a self check-in ticket kiosk which allows one to insert an id and credit card for validation. The boarding pass then prints itself automatically; this reduces the queues at the counters. They also allow one to view the itinerary and select seats. The process takes approximately 5 minutes. According to McGregor theory of operation management, time is an essential factor, all operations are supposed to be time inclusive. The introduction of self-check-in tickets in the airport is thus in line with the McGregor theory. Document Verification- In an international airport such as Manchester, the human traffic is unimaginable. The logistics therefore in of ensuring that everyone is he/she claims to be is thus a nightmare. This operation is both complex and time consuming. It should thus be handled carefully because if handled wrongly could increase the occurrence of a security breach. The counters in Manchester airport are up to the task. The airport has 30 counters for verifying travel documents and thus reduce the delays at this operational stage. Because of the many counters this process takes approximately two minutes. Waiting bay- The passengers then have to wait for approximately 20 minutes in the waiting bay, this is where the non passengers are left. The ticket is used to ensure only those travelling enter into the next section. The time taken here is because of saying goodbyes. The passengers enter into the center of the airport or the terminuses, while those coming to wave the goodbye go out through another sectio n. Those going out get out through n exit door to avoid confusion. This is operation is helpful as it enables security to monitor movements. Eating/feeding- Tax free hotels inside the hotels ensure that those travelling eat what they want. The hotels offer all types of food. The area is a wireless networking gateway. The food is necessary for long distance travelers who do not want to take food in the plane.

Transcendendalist theories and beliefs, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Thoreau, transcendentalism today Essay Example for Free

Transcendendalist theories and beliefs, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Thoreau, transcendentalism today Essay In the world of Ralph Waldo Emerson, nothing is more simple than greatness, to be simple is to be great. Emerson believed in simplifying life, he believed that the less possessions a person had the less they had to worry about. He developed a new and creative way of philosophy titled transcendentalism. Transcendentalism dealt with finding joy in nature, simplicity, and individualism. Simplicity is the state of being simple, uncomplicated, or uncompounded. Simplifying life cuts back on stress and worries. Whats the point in owning 50 pairs of shoes, when all that is really needed is 1 good pair that can be worn every day? Simplifying life cuts back on unnecessary items, there fore cutting back on stress. Today people are more materialistic then ever. They need everything and will buy anything. People forget that man makes possessions, possessions dont make the man. To be an individual means to strike off on ones own path. To not follow in the footsteps of others, theres no fun in doing what everybody else does. Transcendentalism urges people to take their destiny by the hand and follow it wherever it should lead them, for they will receive true enlightenment and fulfillment in life. If everybody just did the same thing the world would be a very boring place, everyone was created different for a reason. Emerson and Thoreau lived in a very traditional sort of society, however, the times have changed. Today so much more is accepted people are no longer afraid to be individuals. If a person wants to dye their hair pink, pierce their face 17 times and get 45 tattoos, nobody really cares. Now days people can express their individual personalities without fear. Thoreau felt that a man could only really find himself by looking to nature, and the great outdoors. For a year he actually moved out into the middle of the woods just to be at peace with himself and live off the land. However that would be kind of difficult to do these days unless one already owns the land, and pays taxes. In recent times people still love nature, they love to get away to the great outdoors for a weekend of camping, or fishing, or a day at the beach. In conclusion, transcendentalism is a very unique and different way of thinking. Yet it is still the way human beings naturally act, they love nature, and they are all created as individuals. People, however, are somewhat greedy and materialistic by nature, they have basic needs. This way of thinking is very awe-inspiring and hopefully will not disappear anytime soon.

World Health Organization Essay Example for Free

World Health Organization Essay Genetically modified food, also known as GM food refer to as animals or plants that had their genetic makeup altered to make them grow bigger, stay fresher and other benefits that will make human life more simple. The concept of genetically modified (GM) foods has existed for many years. Cross-breeding of plants, has been applied before with the purpose of transferring a desirable trait from one plant species to another. However, a substantial amount of time is required to obtain a specific result. This is because all of the genes are pooled together and numerous attempts are required for the production of offsprings with the preferred trait. Tomatoes are the first GM crop introduced to the world. Although genetically modified foods arises many concerns regarding its safety and consequences of consumption, the real question posed by the society is whether these GM foods should be banned for the benefit of mankind. Even if GM foods have been known to trigger allergic reactions and toxicities, is environmentally hazardous and costly, it should not be banned because it is confirmed to be beneficial to human health, environmentally friendly and able to improve the quality and quantity of life. This report is mainly focused on the benefits of GM food towards mankind. This is due to GM foods being present in almost all countries worldwide. Additionally, to fulfill ever-increasing needs of humans, conventional crops are genetically being replaced by GM crops. (World Health Organization) GM food brings many advantages to mankind. First of all, GM food that was engineered genetically is able to sustain favorable human health and enrich the wellbeing of its consumers. This is because it can remove the malnutrition problem faced by the current world and GM crops can be modified to become edible vaccines to reduce vulnerability towards diseases. Malnutrition problems can be solved by introducing GM foods enhanced with nutrition that humans are lacked of, such as vitamin D and iron that will cause rickets in children or osteoporosis in aged adults as well as iron deficiency. Susceptibility to a certain disease can be reduced if edible vaccines are added into the GM foods such as the GM banana. Hepatitis B can be prevented by eating such genetically modified bananas. Genetically modified foods can remove malnutrition problems faced by mankind today. Vitamins and minerals can be inserted into GM crops such as GM rice to make humans healthier. GM rice contains high amounts of Vitamin A compared to non-GM rice. The other malnutrition problem often faced by humans is iron deficiency. Approximately two billion people prove to be tested positive for iron deficiency. As such, researchers have invested in GM rice by intensifying the iron content in polished rice to solve the iron deficiency problem. The genes that were inserted into the GM foods have a positive effect on the accumulation of iron in the rice kernel that causes the GM rice to contain 6 times more iron compared to the original variety. Some GM crops are modified to become edible vaccines that can reinforce the immune system of humans. Some GM crops have been inserted with DNA sequences encoding for antibodies into their genome. This enables the crops to produce antibiotics in their cells. GM crops such as banana, tomato and potato have been altered to contain bacterial or rotavirus antigens. Large scaled immunizations can be made by introducing edible vaccines to patients, rendering the vaccinations of these diseases considerably easier, painless, and accessible. Per se, antibodies contained in such GM foods will be able to enhance the immune system of human bodies to combat against pathogens when consumed orally. Therefore, it will not be uncommon in the near future when humans can merely ingest GM tomatoes instead of waiting in line to see a doctor. (Galina 2006) Opponents of GM foods claim that GM foods are potentially risky to human health. They assert that GM foods will trigger an allergin in the human body should it be eaten. There is a possibility that a new allergen will be created and result in susceptible individuals exhibiting symptoms of allergic reactions when a foreign gene is introduced into a crop. GM foods are genetically engineered to have their allergenic-causing proteins to be removed. As such, they do not contain potentially harmful proteins as compared to non-GM foods such as peanuts, cereals and eggs. Producing hypoallergenic GM foods would be a desired commodity as these foods will possess the ability to notably decrease the danger of adverse reactions. (Union of Concerned Scientists 2009) One of the benefits introducing GM foods is that the plantation of GM crops is environmentally affable. Currently, our world is afflicted with the issue of pollution. To rectify this problem, GM crops are modified to resistance to insect and pest attack as well as to herbicides. Additionally, another process which is applied in an effort to make GM crops environmentally friendly is phytoremediation. Therefore, pollution can be greatly reduced and eventually be eliminated altogether. Phytoremediation is defined as the rectification of environmental issues through the usage of plants which alleviate the environmental problem without the need to relocate and dispose contaminant materials somewhere else. (World Health Organization 2002) With the population of the world growing substantially each year, significant amounts of stress are placed on resources of land fit for plantation, water, energy, as well as other biological reserves to supply sufficient food whilst sustaining the coherence of the ecosystem. Roughly 1 to 2 billion humans suffer from malnourishment, signifying a sign of scarce food supply, low incomes and sparse allocation of food supplies. Introduction of GM foods have greatly lessened the problem. GM crops are modified to produce greater amounts and increase the nutritional value in crop-derived foods. Substantial amounts of products are able to solve the world food crisis. Desperate pleas for richer, better-off countries to utilize genetic engineering in diminishing famines are a result of thousands losing their lives daily and millions on the verge of starvation. By revising the genetic make-up of plant strains, biotechnology will be able notably lessen world hunger. Crops can be engineered to resist diseases, resulting in the quantity of yield succumbing to disease to decrease. In another case, cold-resistant crops are able to benefit countries enduring from winter the whole year round. (Union of Concerned Scientists 2009) GM foods have raised much controversy in many nations throughout the world. People are still indecisive in their choice to consume products containing GM foods. It stands to be true that doubts concerning GM foods were widespread when first introduced to the public, but through many years of experimental analysis as well as safety tests, GM foods have been confirmed to be safe for human consumption with numerous benefits as a bonus. In fact, GM foods are essential now in resolving the crisis of hunger and scarcity of food around the world. Acceptance of GM foods are beginning to increase significantly over the years as more and more people are convinced of their benefits in terms of cost, health, and nature. (Galina 2006). Therefore, it cannot be denied that GM foods should be legalized for the benefit of mankind. As mentioned in the report, GM foods promote good human health, are environmentally friendly. Hence, it is irrefutable that its advantages totally outweigh its drawbacks and that GM foods are the way to go in ensuring a brighter future for us and for the whole world. Bibliography World Health Organization. (Internet). (2002). Foods derived from modern technology: 20 questions on genetically modified foods.(2012) Available from: http://www. who. int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/index. php Union of Concerned Scientists (2009). Failure to Yield: Biotechnologys Broken Promises. Cambridge, MA, Union of Concerned Scientists. 2012. http://www. ucsusa. org/assets/documents/food_and_agriculture/failure-to-yield-brochure. pdf Gaivoronskaia, Galina (2006). Consumers with Allergic Reaction to Food: Perception of and Response to Food Risk in General and Genetically Modified Food in Particular. 2012. http://www. jstor. org/stable/29733966.

Case Study: Hospital Fall of an Elderly Patient

Case Study: Hospital Fall of an Elderly Patient A case study of a critical incident based on a hospital fall of an elderly patient with memory problems who has had several falls at home and has been admitted to a community hospital for assessment. It is suggested that the consequences of patient falls are a serious issue for patients and society. A fall is defined as an unexpected, involuntary loss of balance by which a person comes to rest at a lower or ground level (Commodore 1995). The older population is growing in number, and falling is common in this group. Up to one-third of people over the age of 65 fall each year, with half reporting multiple falling episodes (Bludau and Lipsitz 1997). Fall-related injury is the sixth highest cause of death in older people Savage and Matheis-Kraft 2001). Half of those aged over 75 years who fracture their hip as a result of a fall die within one year (Rawskey 1998), and those who survive rarely regain complete mobility (Marotolli 1992). Falls are also a leading cause of head injury, the most serious being subdural haematoma (Tideiksaar 1998). Falls are associated with major morbidity, functional decline and increased healthcare expenditure (Tinetti 1994). In a hospital setting, 10 per cent of older patients who have fallen die before discharge, and a clustering of falls in one patient results in increased mortality (Tideiksaar 1998). In the United Kingdom about 310,000 fractures occur each year in older people (Woolf and Akesson 2003). Fourteen thousand people a year die each year as a result of an osteoporotic hip fracture, with up to 33 per cent of hip fracture patients dying within one year of fracture (Department of Health (DoH) 2001). It is posited that the effects of falls extend beyond obvious physical and direct cost. Even if falls do not cause physical injury, the psychological effect can be long-lasting. â€Å"Post-fall syndrome† results in hesitancy and a loss of confidence leading to loss of mobility and independence (Cannard 1996). Arguably, this can cause shame and unwillingness to admit to falls. Consequently, falls are underreported. They may not even be remembered by fallers, especially those with cognitive imp airment (Lord et al 2001). It is debated that the term â€Å"fall† is now considered contentious because those who fall are perceived quite negatively as old, frail and dependent (DoH 2001). Family members are also affected by falls: they may be concerned for the safety of an older family member, his or her ability to remain independent and the possibility of long-term care. There have been few studies investigating nurses’ views of falls in patients, although Fitzgibbon and Roberts (1988) found that nurses experience fear of blame, anxiety, guilt and distress following a fall by a patient in their care. As a consequence of the effects of a fall on the patient, health professional and healthcare organisation, various risk assessment tools and prevention strategies have been developed. This paper will examine the critical incident of a fall by an elderly lady who has had repeated falls at home. She was admitted to hospital for assessment because of the falls at home. However, when she was an inpatient she fell on the ward to which she was admitted. For the purpose of this assignment and for confidentiality reasons as expounded in the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC 2004) code of professional conduct, the patient will be know as patient A. Patient A is a 77 year old female who is in frail health. She has experienced numerous falls at home and is showing symptoms of dementia. Patient A was admitted to a general hospital because her diabetes was extremely unstable. Unstable diabetes is a known risk factor for falls in older people with dementia (Lord et al 2001). During her stay in hospital, patient A became disorientated and fell â€Å"en route† to the bathroom. She sustained a neck of femur fracture that required surgery and consequently a long hospital stay. On discharge she was referred to her community hospital rehabilitation unit for assessment. The process of ageing creates irreversible changes in all body systems that can lead to reduced efficiency or performance over time. As physical ability and reactions change, so does cognitive ability. For most people this will have little or no consequence for daily living or independence. However, for older people with cognitive impairment or dementia, changes in mood, memory and thought processes in addition to changed physical health can result in increased risk and vulnerability that includes an increase in the potential for falling, as in the case of patient A (Oliver et al 2007). These risks are greatly compounded by admission to hospital or institutional care (Oliver et al 2007). As already mentioned falls are the most common patient safety incident reported from inpatient services and are responsible for at least 40 per cent of all accidents in hospital (National Patient Safety Agency 2007). By nature of the nurse-patient relationship, nurses are well placed to identify the multiple risks that older people can encounter in hospital from illness and from the care environment, and can work with the patient and care team to identify ways of reducing them. Falls in older people can occur for a wide variety of reasons. In addition to physical disorders, they can also be a feature of a number of neurodegenerative disorders, including dementia. Hospital environments can also present significant challenges and threats to older people with mental health problems, particularly because their functional and/or organic decline can increase vulnerability and their risk of having a fall (Lord et al 2001). It is also suggested that those with dementia are less likely or able to take the initiative in managing their own health in general and that this increases the likelihood of falls (DoH 2001). With regard to patient A, she was exhibiting memory loss and behaviours symptomatic of dementia. She had not engaged with the medical services for some time and her physical health had degenerated leaving her frail and unable to cope with activities of daily living. As a consequence her diabetes had become dangerously unstable resulting in her collapsing at home and then being admitted to hospital where the fall that fractured her hip took place. As mentioned, the consequences of falls are varied but, can be life-limiting and at worst, life-threatening (DoH 2001). As well as the consequences of physical change, the effects on mental state can further delay the recovery process, for example, by inducing depression (Lenze et al 2004). Risk assessment processes therefore should identify those most likely to fall, offer guidance on interventions to reduce those risks and be subject to frequent multidisciplinary review. It is posited that the role of nursing in helping the person with memory loss/dementia to cope with and adapt to changes created by illness relies on a continuous process of assessment of the whole person (Kitwood 1997). The environment, in which this process takes place and the patient’s response to it, should be given equal consideration. Patient A was admitted to a specialist rehabilitation unit that particularly cares for the elderly and their needs. Part of the unit’s remit is to assess an individuals’ risk of falling and put strategies into place for the prevention of further falls, and to that end the unit’s environment is managed in such a way that helps to prevent falls. It is posited that the need to assess risk from the outset of care is paramount for the care to be meaningful, relevant and appropriate (NMC 2004). The support of the nurse in offering interventions that promote recovery and maximisation of potential towards independence or less dependence should decrease the risks of falls and fractures. Assessing the risk of falls can highlight areas of greatest vulnerability and, therefore, direct the formulation of the plan of care towards deficits or areas of unmet need. Debatably, the patient who has been admitted to hospital because of deterioration in mental state or cognitive function will be most at risk because of that change. The person may decline to stay, become distressed at separation from a partner or family, and feel persecuted or vulnerable. Although, patient A was admitted for clinical reasons it is debated that as she had underlying cognitive and memory problems her mental state quickly deteriorated. Biological features may add to the clinical presentation and behavioural changes may create practical difficulties with managing safety (Oliver et al 2004). This was the case with regard to patient A. There are numerous rating scales in existence that measure behaviour, mood and functional abilities of older people (Burns et al 2004). Assessment of physiological aspects of recovery, for example: pain monitoring, tissue viability, nutrition and mobility is often more evident in clinical practice. However, it is suggested that for those with cognitive impairment or dementia, risk-rating scales should be able to combine evaluation of physical and psychological areas of need, as well as the behavioural and functional components of presentation. If a patient is unable to address risks, nursing staff need to consider their role in addressing need and act on the patient’s behalf if necessary. Although comprehensive assessment of the patient’s presentation, needs and abilities is a continuous and evolving process (Oliver et al 2004), it became clear that patient A had immediate threats to her safety and therefore needed to be quickly evaluated and prioritised so that appropriate interventions could be initiated with immediate effect.. It is proposed that the use of a risk factor-based approach to assess older people who fall can prevent more than 50 per cent of falls (Close 2001). Therefore, an assessment tool for falls that took into account both the physical and the psychological risk factors was used to assess patient A on admission to the unit and at specified times thereafter. This enabled issues to be addressed that would otherwise not have been elicited via the Single Assessment Process concept of risk assessment (Burns et al 2004). The assessment tool was used in combination with patient A’s care plan. It is suggested that the combination of an assessment tool with a care plan, as in the Fall Risk Assessment Scale for the Elderly (FRASE) tool (Barry 2001), is an example of best practice. However, the FRASE tool does not allow for assessment of mental impairment so this was added to the tool used for patient A. The tool used enabled the nurses and other multi-disciplinary team members to assess patient A’s risk of falling and it included components such as previous fall history, sensory deficit, medication, presence of secondary diagnosis. Balance/gait, age, mobility status and length of time since admission was added in following assessments. This is important as long stays in hospital can enhance functional decline and consequently â€Å"fall risk† (Oliver et al, 2004). In conclusion, for an older person with cognitive impairment or dementia for whom admission to hospital was necessary, the increased exposure to risk requires swift, comprehensive assessment and intervention to reduce the likelihood of falling. An appropriate risk assessment tool should illicit areas of greatest need or deficit, be proactive in suggesting appropriate interventions and form part of a multiprofessional and multifaceted approach to preventing falls in hospital. References Barry E (2001) Preventing accidental falls among older people in long stay units, Irish Medical Journal, 94, 6, 172-176 Bludau J, Lipsitz L (1997) Falls in the elderly: In Wei J, Sheehan M (Eds) Geriatric Medicine: A Case-based Manual, Oxford, UK, Oxford, Medical Publications Burns A, Lawlor B, Craig S (2004) Assessment Scales in Old Age Psychiatry, (2e), Martin Dunitz, London Cannard G (1996) Falling trend, Nursing Times, 92, 1, 36-7 Close J (2001) Interdisciplinary practice in the prevention of falls: a review of working models of care, Age and Ageing, 30, Suppl 4, 8-12 Commodore D (1995) Falls in the elderly population: a look at incidence, risks, healthcare costs, and preventative strategies, Rehabilitation Nursing, 20, 2, 84-89 Department of Health (2001) National Service Framework for Older People: Standard Six: Falls, The Stationery Office, London Fitzgibbon M, Roberts F (1988) Prevention of accidents to hospital patients, Recent Advances in Nursing, 22, 33-48 Kitwood T (1997) Dementia Reconsidered: The Person Comes First, Open University Press, Buckingham Lenze EJ, Munin MC, Dew MA (2004) Adverse effects of depression and cognitive impairment on rehabilitation participation and recovery from hip fracture, International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19, 5, 472-478 Lord SR, Sherrington C, Menz HB (2001) Falls in Older People: Risk Factors and Strategies for Prevention, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Marotolli R (1992) Decline in physical function following hip fracture, Journal of the American, Geriatrics Society, 40, 9, 861-866 National Patient Safety Agency (2007) Slips, Trips and Falls in Hospital: Third report from the Patient Safety Observatory, London, NPSA Nursing and Midwifery Council (2004) The NMC code of professional conduct: standards for conduct, performance and ethics London: NMC Oliver D, Connelly JB, Victor CR (2007) Strategies to prevent falls and fractures in hospitals and care homes and effect of cognitive impairment: systematic review and meta-analyses, British Medical Journal, 334, 7584, 82-89 Rawskey E (1998) Review of the literature on falls among the elderly, Image: the Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 30, 1, 47-52 Savage T, Matheis-Kraft C (2001) Fall occurrence in a geriatric psychiatry setting before and after a fall prevention program, Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 27, 10, 49-53 Tideiksaar R (1998) Falls in Older Persons: Prevention and Management, (2e), Baltimore MD, Health Professions Press Tinetti M (1994) A multifactorial intervention to reduce the risk of falling among elderly people living in the community, New England Journal of Medicine, 331, 13, 821-827 Woolf A, Akesson K (2003) Preventing fractures in elderly people, British Medical Journal, 327, 7406, 89-96 Hewlett Packard (HP): Leadership Crisis Hewlett Packard (HP): Leadership Crisis Case prepared by Rajgopal Iyengar. In the recent years Hewlett Packard (HP) board of directors have been in the limelight for wrong reasons. Four CEOs were hired and replaced in the last decade and three CEOs changes were within a span of 1.5 years. The board has not been able to find the right leader to fit into the HPs Cultures of doing things. The uncertainties in leadership has led to a huge loss for HP in terms of decreased market value, dissatisfied shareholders and blurred strategic vision. In this paper we study the HP CEOs since 1999, their leadership style, their vision and things that went wrong leading to their ouster. Hewlett Packard History (Till 1990s) The company was founded in a  one-car garage  in Palo Alto by  William (Bill) Redington Hewlett  and  Dave Packard. HP is the  worlds leading PC manufacturer. The company focussed on manufacturing of networking and data storage components in addition to designing, development and delivery of software. The key products manufactured were personal computers, enterprise servers, network and storage products, printers and imaging products. HP marketed its products directly and via online to its customers that included individual consumers, SME (Small Medium Enterprise) and large enterprises. HP also had a solid presence in the service and consulting business for the products it manufactured. HPs culture and management practises know HP Way was based on teamwork, transparency, open door management policies and flexibility in work place. HP treated the employees as assets and strived to provide a better work life balance to the employees. The business goals were profit oriented rather than increasing revenues. In late 1980s, HP started building low margin PCs contrary to the companies principle. By 1990, HP was the one of the top technological companies in the world, a market leader in both printers and UNIX based servers, with a growing presence in PC business. HP had a strong leadership under the founders Bill Hewlett (till 1987) and Dave Packard (till 1994). Hewlett Packard History (In 1990s) In the early 1990s, HP focussed on three major businesses: The test and measurement instrument business, the UNIX server business the HP Printers Computer business. The test and measurement business UNIX Server business provided high margins that were in line with the HP Way of working. However the printer business sold low cost printers at high volume and derived high profitability from the ink cartridges. HPs sales grew by 20% between 1992 1996 with an increasing dependency on the low margin PC Printer business. By 1997, HP was among the top 3 manufacturers of PC. HP faced severe competition from Dell and the Asia crisis in 1998 made HP loose margin on PC business. Lewiss Platt the then CEO of HP hired consultant to determine the problem HP was facing. The consultant suggested hiring an outside CEO with a marketing and sales background who can exude Charisma and increase the companys profile. In May 1999, the board decided on Carly Fiorina. Carly Fiorina (1999-2005) Carly Fiorina was born  in  Austin, Texas, on the 6th of September, 1954. Her father  Joseph Tyree Sneed III  was a very talented and multifaceted person. He was a law school professor, dean, and federal judge. In addition he was also an abstract and portrait artist. Fiorina attended Channing School in London, and later attended  Charles E. Jordan High School  in  Durham, North Carolina, for her senior year. She received a  Bachelor of Arts  in  philosophy  and  medieval history  from  Stanford University  in 1976. Fiorina received an  MBA  in  marketing  from  University of Maryland, College Park  in 1980 and later received a  Master of Science  in  management  from the  MIT Sloan School of Management  under the  Sloan Fellows  program in 1989. ATT and Lucent In 1980 Fiorina joined ATT as a management trainee and rose to the level of senior vice president for the companys hardware and systems division. Fiorina led the spin-off of ATT and Lucent; she also played a key role in planning and implementing of the 1996  initial public offering  of stock and company launch strategy.  In late 1996 she became the president of Lucents consumer products business. In 1997, she was appointed as chairman of Lucents consumer communications joint venture with Philips consumer communications.   Changes under Carly Fiorina Leadership Carly Fiorina moved in quickly and tried to revitalize the HP environment. She pruned the reporting units from 82 to 12 and amalgamated back-office functions. She modified the HPs profit sharing program to a performance based incentive program to motivate individuals. She completely rejigged the sales and marketing function. She topped the 50 Most Powerful Women in Business list from Fortune magazine for 5 consecutive years. However her leadership style was controversial and many HP employees disliked her. She was regarded as self-centred, demanding leader who completely destroyed the HP culture. Carly spearheaded the merger of HP Compaq that was opposed by the analysts and board members. These differences lead to a public spat between the board members and the CEO. Eventually the deal was approved with a slight majority of 2.1% where 49% opposed the decision and 51% agreed. The Compaq acquisition did not go well as envisaged by Fiorina. Operating margins dropped from 9% in 2000 to 4% in 2005 (Refer Exhibit1 ). Share prices also continued to drop from $34 in 2000 to $21 in 2005(Refer Exhibit2). Following a string of disappointing financial results the board eventually asked Fiorina to resign on Feb 2005. Mark Hurd (2005-2010) Mark Vincent Hurd  was born in Flushing, New York USA on January 1, 1957. He graduated form Baylor University in the year 1979 with a BBA degree. Hurd was the CEO President of NCR Corporation when he decided to move out and join HP. Mark Hurd increased the revenue of NCR by 7% and net income by five times from the previous year by taking a gamut of operational efficiency initiatives. At NCR Mark Hurd held a variety of positions in general management, operations, and sales and marketing. He also served as head of the companys  Teradata  data-warehousing division for three years. Hurd was a member of the  Technology CEO Council, a consortium of chairmen and chief executive officers of IT companies that develops and advocates public policy positions on technology and trade. Changes Under Mark Hurd This time the HP board decided to hire a person with a strong operational experience and hands on execution capabilities. Mark Hurd was well known in Silicon Valley for operational and cost cutting capabilities. Although Mark had never managed a very large company the size of HP, he had a very good success rate. Mark believed in Management by involvement. He tried to get a deeper understanding of the business by dirtying his hands. Mark believed in the concept of management by walking around.. He would stroll through multiple levels of the company and try to get an understanding of the environment. He strongly believed a company can become great if the CEOs ,boards, and management all think alike. Mark Hurd said: I believe in the principle that Company comes first, Employee second and Self is last Mark Hurd was very aggressive in his approach. Within few months of joining he announced broad restructuring initiatives and laid off 14,500 employee. He reorganized the corporate sale group by reducing the group size and assigning the sales team to specific products. He believed a strong knowledge of the product was essential to sell the product. He gave executives lot of flexibility in managing their budgets and held them accountable for their performance. During the 2008-2009 recessions he deducted 5% from the employee salary and 20% from the executive salary to meet the targets. These cost cutting initiatives helped in boosting HPs share value and profitability. The operating margin increased from 4% in 2005 to 9% in 2010(Refer Exhibit3). Share value of HP rose by 129% under his tenure(Refer Exhibit4). The profit generated was used by Mark Hurd to acquire companies in the software and service space like EDS, Mercury Interactive, Peregrine Systems Palm. Things were not completely fine under the leadership of Mark Hurd. Although the company performed well, the employee morale was down. The cost cutting and tightened management completely killed the HP Way work culture. The RD spending plummeted from 4.5% in 2004 to 2.3% in 2010(Refer Exhibit5). The number of patent applications also plummeted during Mark Hurds tenure resulting in loss of strategic advantages for HP. In 2010, HP was mired in controversy and scandal that led to the resignation of Mark Hurd. A company contractor by the name Jodie Fisher filed a sexual harassment case against Mark Hurd. Investigations revealed Mark Hurd had filed inappropriate expenses to skirt the relationship with the women that violated the HP Code Of Conduct. Mark Hurd was asked to resign by the board of directors. HP was again without a leader. Leo Apotheker (2010-2011) Leo Apotheker was born in Aachen, Germany on Sep18 1953. Apotheker studies economics at the  Hebrew University  in  Jerusalem. Apotheker worked in finance and operation function of several European companies before joining SAP in 1988. At SAP, his growth was phenomenal. In 1995, He became CEO and founder of SAP Belgium and SAP France. In 1997, he was made the president of SAPs South West Europe region and by 1999, the president of SAP EMEA sales region. In 2002 Apotheker joined the SAP AG executive board and became the president of global customer solutions and operations from. He was appointed deputy CEO of SAP in 2007; and promoted to co-CEO of the company in April 2008. On February 7, 2010, the SAP supervisory board decided to terminate Apothekers executive board membership. This decision led Apotheker to resign from SAP. HP Under Leo Apotheker The search for the next CEO was riddled with pessimism from the outset. The dispute over Mark Hurds resignation made the task of search committee very difficult. The board was divided over the selection of internal versus external candidate. The resignation of Mark Hurd complemented with the sacking history of past CEOs had created negative publicity about the company in the job market. Highly talented external candidates were not interested in the job. Leo Apotheker was appointed as the CEO of the company in Oct 2010. The appointment of Leo Apotheker received a gloomy response from the market because of multiple reasons. Firstly the credibility and track record of Leo was not great. An article in Wall Street Journal highlighted: Its very discomforting that Mr. Apoteker has never run the show alone. He abruptly resigned from SAP in less than a year Secondly Leo had no understanding of the HP hardware business. Hence he was a misfit for the HP job. The other disturbing fact was Leo was not interviewed by all the members of the board or even met them. Clearly the indifference of the board towards the selection was evident. Tenure of Leo Apotheker was short-lived and disappointing. Initially Leo worked on the strategy designed by Mark Hurd, but in a short time he started making drastic changes to the strategy. He terminated the initiative of HPs venture into the Tablet market and suggested spin off of the PC division. He also suggested purchasing a business analytics company called Autonomy at 10 times the original price. These incoherent action and adhoc strategy was punished by the market. Stock prices plunged and HP lost 45% of its value(Refer Exhibit). Taking cue of the market dissatisfaction, the board of directors fired Leo Apotheker. Meg Whitman (2011 Till Date) Whitman was born on 4 August 1956 in  Long Island, New York. She was the daughter of Margaret Cushing and Hendricks Hallett Whitman Jr. Whitman graduated from  Cold Spring Harbor High School  in 1974. Margaret took maths and science in Princeton university because she wanted to be a doctor. However, after a summer vacation stint in selling magazine advertisements she got inclined to marketing. She studies economics,   and earned a B.A. with honors in 1977. In 1979, Whitman did her  M.B.A.  from  Harvard Business School. Whitman started her career at Procter and Gamble as a brand manager. She later worked as a consultant for Bain and Company and rose to the rank of Senior Vice President in the organization. She joined Walt Disney in 1989 and became the VP of strategic planning. She quit Walt Disney after 2 years and joined Stride Rite Corporation. In 1995 she was named the CEO of Florists Transworld Delivery. Whitman joined  eBay  as CEO on March 1998. At the time the company had only 30 employees  and revenues of $4  million. She grew the company to approximately 15,000 employees and $8  billion in annual revenue by 2008.Whitman resigned as CEO of eBay in November 2007, but remained on the board and served as an advisor to new CEO  John Donahoe  until late 2008 Whitman has received numerous awards and accolades for her work at eBay. On more than one occasion, she was named among the top five most powerful women by  Fortune  magazine. HP Under Meg Whitman The appointment of Meg Whitman was not taken well by the market. Analysts felt Meg Whitman was inexperienced in managing a complex hardware software based business of HP that was already suffering from scandals, low morale, murky vision and unstable leadership. Meg Whitmans strategy was to focus on strengthening the internal business of HP. She wanted to continue with some of the strategies initiated by Leo Apotheker except the spinoff business. Whitman decided to restructure the business by dropping 30000 jobs and using the money to fuel new product development and improvement of sales force6. She merged the PC Printer business to improve the operational efficiency. Clearly Whitman has a strategy in place to get back HP on its feet. She is strengthening internal HP departments, spending money of new product development that are inline with HP Way of working. She has also managed to set a low expectation in the market for the setting low Future The leaders appointed by HP board were not able to align with the HP Culture and make the difference. It needs to be seen whether Meg Whitman will be able to recuperate HP and restore the past glory.

Science and the Judicial System Essay -- Biology Essays Research Paper

Science and the Judicial System Science and the Judicial System are two concepts that at face value seem to be very distinct and unique in their own nature, but at their cores they share interesting similarities and connections. They each propose a different way of understanding how we comprehend and place order. In this paper I'll address my understanding of both concepts, analyze their theories, backbones and failures, and then bring them both together through connections hopefully to support my idea that they are both inextricably connected to what we call life and its relationship to the human mind. Science is a controversial subject very much like Judicial System. Although Science is largely composed of observation, experiments and their results, it raises controversy because imagination and perspective play a key role in those interpretations. As we know that imagination and perspective vary with each person due to education, background, and experience; how is it possible that we can assign a concrete truth to such a varied conceptualization. Thus, we cannot formulate any concrete truth. In this sense I see Scientists more as Philosophers. Another issue I find when dealing with traditional scientific theories is that Science often fails to provide theories and explanations for phenomenon's that hold truth and validation in both a scientific context and the context of the human mind. I feel that Science often caters to a "black and white" way of formulating answers; it fails to recognize the gray areas. Often times people try to find the most common and accepted ways to support their theories and in doing so they adapt to the standard and more traditional ways of viewing the world. This leaves less room for creativit... ...ly in value but also politics. Both science and the judicial system produce gray areas when trying to understand and rationalize. Science and the judicial system are inextricably connected to life. We systematically try to put life in a box to create order, order insures a comfort, and that comfort often gets in the way of open-mindedness. The human mind by itself is a convoluted vast universe. We as scholars, scientists, and human kind need to understand and that by assigning truths, right or wrongs we are limiting the extend of our intellectual capacities. References 1)The Truth of Science, Physical Theories and Reality, An article from Harvard University Press http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/NEWTRU.html 2)An Overview of American Abortion Laws, A thorough explanation of the laws concerning abortions http://hometown.ao.com/abrtbng/overview.htm

Jesus the Christ: The Historical Jesus Essay example -- Biblical Histo

The Birth of Jesus We can see the birth of Jesus in Matthew (Matt 1:18-25) (Matt 2:1-12), Luke (Luke 2:1-2) and John (John1:1-18). Both Matthew and Luke tell us that Jesus’ birth place was in Bethlehem in Judea in the time of King Herod of Judea and Emperor Augustine of the Roman Empire. The gospels tell us that Jesus was born in a stable under an inn (Luke 2:7). This is unlikely because Bethlehem was the birthplace of David, who was Joseph’s ancestor. This means that there may have been a house with his cousins or extended family there. The Hebrew word for inn can also be described as ‘the upper room’ and in traditional Jewish houses, there was an upper room where the family stayed and underneath this was the place where the animals were kept. This could have been seen as the stable under the ‘inn’. Now because of the census performed by Emperor Augustine the Jews had to travel to their ancestral home that meant that the house Mary and Joseph were staying at could have been full, so the upper room was full, making the only available room for the baby to be born in the stable below. Jesus was thought to be traditionally born in 1AD after the Monk Dionysus Exigus tried to calculate the year, from the Birth of Jesus, by taking away the reigns of Kings. Unfortunately Exigus made a few errors and Jesus is now thought to be born a few years BC. We know that in Matt 2:1 and Matt2:16 (Luke 1:55) that King Herod the Great was the ruler of Judea. From Roman records we know that King Herod died in 4BC near the feast of the Passover. This means that the earliest time Jesus could have been born was early 4BC. Herod plays an integral part in determining Jesus birth date because it also could explain the Bethlehem Star, which we... ...s full and to stop the spread of disease. But after the three days cleansing period, some of the disciples returned to find the stone rolled away and the body of Jesus missing. Grave robbing was a serious crime punishable by death and it would have taken a team to roll the stone. But Jesus had told his disciples many times that he would rise again on the third day, which they obviously did not comprehend. He spoke to them later on when he appeared to them and to show he was still human said â€Å"see my hands and feet, that it is I Myself; handle and see: For a spirit hath not bones and flesh; as you see I have† (Luke 24:39). He shows the apostles the obvious wounds he still has from his crucifixion, and then invites them to touch him, vanquishing thoughts of an apparition. Work Cited New American Standard Bible. New York: American Bible Society, 1997. Print.

John Kenneth Galbraith :: essays research papers

John Kenneth Galbraith The Canadian-born, Berkeley-trained John Kenneth Galbraith has been considered by many as the "Last American Institutionalist". As a result, Galbraith has remained something of a renegade in modern economics - and his work has been nothing if not provocative. In the 1950s, he presented economics with two tracts that needled the mainstream: one developing a theory of price control (which arose out of his wartime experience in the Office of Price Administration) which he argued for as an anti-inflation policy (1952); the second, American Capitalism (1952), which argued that American post-war success arose not out of "getting the prices right" in an orthodox sense, but rather of "getting the prices wrong" and allowing industrial concentration to develop. It is a formula for growth because it enables technical innovation which might otherwise not been done. However, it can only be regarded as successful provided there is a "countervailing power" ag ainst potential abuse in the form of trade unions, supplier and consumer organizations and government regulation. Many have since argued the formula for East Asian success later in the century was based precisely on this combination of oligopolistic power and "countervailing" institutions. It was his smallish 1958 book, The Affluent Society, that earned Galbraith his popular reknown and professional emnity. Although the thesis was not astoundingly new - having long been argued by Veblen, Mitchell and Knight - his attack on the myth of "consumer sovereignty" went against the cornerstone of mainstream economics and, in many ways, the culturally hegemonic "American way of life". His New Industrial State (1967) expanded on Galbraith's theory of the firm, arguing that the orthodox theories of the perfectly competitive firm fell far short in analytical power. Firms, Galbraith claimed, were oligopolistic, autonomous institutions vying for market share (and not profit maximization) which wrested power away from owners (entrepreneurs/shareholders), regulators and consumers via conventional means (e.g. vertical integration, advertising, product differentiation) and unconventional ones (e.g. bureaucratization, capture of political favor), etc. Naturally, these were themes already well-espoused in the old American Institutionalist literature, but in the 1960s, they had been apparently forgotten in economics. The issue of "political capture" by firms was expanded upon in his 1973 Economics and the Public Purpose. But new themes were added - notably, that of public education, the political process and stressing the provision of public goods. Although often not acknowledging it explicitly, many economists have since pursued themes raised by Galbraith.

A Critical Review of Knowledge Management as a Management Tool

Journal of Knowledge Management Emerald Article: A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson Article information: To cite this document: Maria Martensson, (2000),†A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool†, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 4 Iss: 3 pp. 204 – 216 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/13673270010350002 Downloaded on: 23-04-2012 References: This document contains references to 78 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 18 other documentsTo copy this document: [email  protected] om This document has been downloaded 12944 times. Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by Shahid University of Beheshti For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guid elines are available for all. Additional help for authors is available for Emerald subscribers. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. com/authors for more information.About Emerald www. emeraldinsight. om With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download.A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Introduction Over the past several years there have been intensive discussions about the importance of knowledge management (KM) within our society. Scholars and observers from disciplines as disparate as sociology, economics, and management science agree that a transformation has occurred  ± â€Å"knowledge† is at centre stage (Davenport et al. , 1998). KM and related strategy concepts are promoted as important and necessary components for organisations to survive and maintain their competitive keenness.It has become necessary for managers and executives to address â€Å"KM† (Goodman and Chinowsky, 1997). KM is considered a prerequisite for higher productivity and flexibility in both the private and the public sectors. McKern (1996) argues that powerful forces are reshaping the economic and business world and many call for a fundamental shift in organisation processes and human resources strategy. The prime forces of change include globalisation, higher degrees of complexity, new technology, increased competition, changing client demands, and changing economic and political st ructures.Organisations are beginning to recognise that technology-based competitive advantages are transient and that the only sustainable competitive advantages they have are their employees (Black and Synan, 1997). This development has forced steep learning curves as organisations struggle to adapt quickly, respond faster, and proactively shape their industries (Allee, 1996). To remain at the forefront and maintain a competitive edge organisations must have a good capacity to retain, develop, organise, and utilise their employee competencies (Gronhaug and Nordhaug, 1992).E The commonality of the above studies is that they all regard knowledge as a critical factor for an organisation's survival. However, knowledge has always been a valuable asset (Chase, 2000) and an important production component, but what is KM? Is it a new way to understand organising and organisations, is it a tool for exploiting knowledge, or is it just This study was supported by the European Commission, the OECD, the Swedish Council for Work Life Research, Nutek, the Swedish Ministry of Trade and Industry, and the Swedish Public Relations Association.The author Maria Martensson is a PhD student in the Stockholm E University School of Business, Stockholm, Sweden. Keywords Knowledge management, Knowledge, Strategy Abstract Over the past several years there have been intensive discussions about the importance of knowledge management within our society. The management of knowledge is promoted as an important and necessary factor for organisational survival and maintenance of competitive strength. To remain at the forefront organisations need a good capacity to retain, develop, organise, and utilise their employees' capabilities.Knowledge and the management of knowledge appear to be regarded as increasingly important features for organisational survival. Explores knowledge management with respect to its content, its definition and domain in theory and practice, its use and implications, and to point out some problems inherent in the concept. The main contribution of this paper is an extensive literature survey on knowledge management. Electronic access The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www. emerald-library. com Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 .Number 3 . 2000 . pp. 204 ±216 # MCB University Press . ISSN 1367-3270 04 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 another relabelling in the ceaseless flow of fashionable management concepts? The purpose of this paper is to map the contents given to KM, its definition and domain in theory and practice, its use and implications, and to point out some problems inherent in the concept. To determine what KM is, a review of the literature is necessary. Since it is not feasible to cover all the literature, the aim of the survey is not so much to summarise but to draw some conclusions about KM.The first step was to search for articles in databases using the keyword â€Å"knowledge management† and the combination â€Å"knowledge management† and â€Å"strategy†. The literature review is narrow in the sense that only studies using these keywords were included. Most of the literature in this review is of practical nature rather than theoretical (i. e. knowledgebased theory and competence-based theory). The emergence of KM seems to a great extent to be business driven (Carrillo, 2000). The limited number of keywords probably accounts for the skewed distribution of articles in favour of the practical-oriented articles.Another limitation is related to how the concept of knowledge is regarded. What is found in the literature survey is of course just a fraction of what is written about knowledge; however, these are still the things that are pointed out in the literature. In describing knowledge, it is not my intention to give a comple te overview of the concept; rather, the description of knowledge is used as a tool for describing the concept KM. The paper is organised into three sections. The first section is devoted to the origins and domain of KM. The second describes KM as a tool for management, as an informationhandling tool, and as a strategic tool.In the final section, a critical examination of the concept and its implications is presented. I try to determine whether the concept of KM is a necessary tool for more efficient management, or if it is just â€Å"the emperor in new clothes†. Origins and domain of knowledge management Theoretical origins to knowledge management The field of KM can be seen as an integral part of the broader concept â€Å"intellectual capital† (Roos et al. , 1997). Guthrie (2000) make is the following distinction between KM and â€Å"intellectual capital†  ± KM is about the management of the â€Å"intellectual capital† controlled by the company.However , too often the delineation between the two terms is unclear and seldom adequately addressed (Guthrie, 2000). The problem of the management of knowledge is not new according to Roos et al. (1997). The authors use the concept â€Å"intellectual capital† as an umbrella term. â€Å"Intellectual capital† in Skandia, a major insurance company, is defined as â€Å"the possession of knowledge, applied experience, organisational technology, customer relationships, and professional skills that provide Skandia with a competitive edge in the market† (Edvinsson, 1997).Within this descriptive framework, Skandia, Dow Chemical (Petrash, 1996), and many other companies (e. g. Stewart, 1997) prefer to make an operational distinction between human, organisational, and customer capital. Roos et al. (1997) suggest that â€Å"intellectual capital† can be traced to two streams of thought, strategy and measurement. Within the strategic area, the focus is on studying the creatio n and use of knowledge and the relationship between knowledge and success or value creation.Measurement focuses on the need to develop new information systems, measuring non-financial data alongside the traditional financial ones. The conceptual roots of intellectual capital are depicted in Figure 1. With respect to this study, strategic planning and (operational) management of knowledge are important topics. The paper attempts to explore the creation and use of knowledge and the way it is leveraged into value. Key questions addressed include how is the use of knowledge translated into value? How can it be implemented? What important factors are needed for strategic management planning and implementation?A firm's tangible and intangible resources, which are under the control of the firm's administrative organ (referred to as an organisation's condition in Rutihinda, 1996), may be grouped into two main categories: firm resources and firm capabilities (Grant, 1991). According to Grant (1991), this designation implies that resources are inputs into the production process and the capability of a firm is the capacity, what it can do, as a result of teams of resources working together. 205 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 000 . 204 ±216 Figure 1 Conceptual roots of intellectual capital A differentiation between intangible and tangible resources, or an equivalent distinction, appears to be logically required. In a study by Johanson et al. (1998), the question of what is meant by intangibles was raised. The authors concluded that there is no generally accepted definition of intangibles. Intangibles can be studied from at least three perspectives (e. g. accounting, statistics, and managerial). The present paper defines intangibles from the perspective of managerial purposes, i. e. management on both the strategic and operational level.To summarise, whereas a classif ication of intangibles in terms of R&D, software, marketing, and training appears to have been the dominant mode ten years ago, today's classification schemes are oriented towards distinguishing between external (customerrelated) and internal structures, on the one hand, and human capital, on the other (e. g. Sveiby, 1997; Roos and Roos, 1997; Petrash, 1996; Skandia, 1995). Influenced by the resource-based theory of the firm (e. g. Penrose), Luwendahl (1997) and Haanes and Luwendahl (1997) have classified a number of intangible resources from a strategic management perspective.Because there appears to be little consensus on the definition of â€Å"resources†, Haanes and Luwendahl refer to Itami (1987). Resources consist of: . . physical, human, and monetary resources that are needed for business operations to eventuate; and information-based resources, such as management skills, technology, consumer information, brand name, reputation, and corporate culture. After further ela boration on the concepts of intangible resources, intangible assets, capabilities, and competencies, Haanes and Luwendahl categorise intangible resources into competence and relational resources.The latter term refers to such intangibles as reputation, relations, and client loyalty, which are conceived of as being fundamental to the performance of the firm. Competence is defined as the ability to perform a given task and exists at both the individual and organisational level. Within the individual sphere, it includes knowledge, skills, and aptitudes; within the organisational sphere, it includes client-specific databases, technology, routines, methods, procedures, and organisational culture. The basic scheme s shown in Figure 2. Luwendahl (1997) takes the division one step further, since he divides competence and relational categories into the subgroups individual and collective, depending on whether the employee or the organisation is accentuated: Scholars of the â€Å"theory of t he firm† have begun to emphasize the sources and conditions of what 206 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 Figure 2 Intangible resources ave been described as â€Å"the organizational advantages†, rather than focus on the causes and consequences of market failure. Typically, researchers see such organizational advantage as acquiring from the particular capabilities organizations have for creating and sharing knowledge (Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998). in knowledge creation, storage, and deployment (Roberts, 1998; see also Grant, 1991). A firm's distinctive competence is based on the specialised resources, assets, and skills it possesses, and focuses attention on their optimum utilisation to build competitive advantage and economic wealth (Penrose in Rutihinda, 1996).From the theory of the firm, two basic theories have emerged: resource-based theory and know ledge-based theory. Knowledgebased theory of the firm postulates that knowledge is the only resource that provides sustainable competitive advantage, and, therefore, the firm's attention and decision making should focus primarily on knowledge and the competitive capabilities derived from it (Roberts, 1998). The firm is considered being a knowledge integrating institution. Its role is neither the acquisition nor the creation of organisational knowledge; this is the role and prerequisite of the individual.Knowledge resides in and with individual people, the firm merely integrates the individually owned knowledge by providing structural arrangements of co-ordination and cooperation of specialised knowledge workers. That is, the firm focuses on the organisational processes flowing through these structural arrangements, through which individuals engage Empirical origins to knowledge management DiMattia and Oder (1997) argue that the growth of â€Å"knowledge management† has emerge d from two fundamental shifts: downsizing and technological development.Downsizing During the 1980s, downsizing was the popular strategy to reduce overhead and increase profits; however, the downside to being â€Å"lean and mean† soon became evident (Forbes, 1997). The downsizing strategy resulted in a loss of important knowledge, as employees left and took the knowledge that they had accumulated over the years with them (Piggott, 1997). With time, organisations had come to recognise that they had lost years of valuable information and expertise and were now determined to protect themselves against a recurrence (DiMattia and Oder, 1997).This led management to undertake a â€Å"knowledge management† strategy in an effort to store and retain employee knowledge for the future benefit of the company (Forbes, 1997). Organisations are now trying to use technology and systems to capture the knowledge residing in the minds of their employees, so it can be easily shared within the organisation. When stored, it becomes a 207 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 eusable resource that can provide a wealth of competitive advantages, including enhanced organisational capacities, facilitating output, and lowering costs (Forbes, 1997). Technological development The technological development has heightened the interest in â€Å"knowledge management† through two main sources: the explosive growth of information resources such as the Internet and the accelerating pace of technological change (Hibbard, 1997; Mayo, 1998). The recent IT development has affected both the lives of people and organisations (Mayo, 1998).The continual flow of information leaves us feeling overwhelmed and in a general state of disquietude (e. g. that we are missing important details) (Hibbard, 1997). DiMattia and Oder (1997) postulate that â€Å"knowledge managementâ €  is an attempt to cope with the explosion of information and to capitalise on increased knowledge in the workplace. The emerging technological development enables global sharing of information across platforms and continents (DiMattia and Oder, 1997) and can serve as a tool within an organisation to use knowledge more effectively.Capturing a company's collective expertise in databases can help organisations to â€Å"know what they actually know†, and then marshal and exploit this knowledge in a systematic way (Blake, 1998). The domain of knowledge management An essential part of KM is, of course, knowledge. To map the domains of knowledge, traits of the concept knowledge have been put forward based on the stream of research reviewed. The question of the nature of knowledge is extremely challenging.Although philosophers have been discussing the issue for several hundred years, the search for a formal definition continues (Emery, 1997). The definitions appearing in the lit erature range from studying knowledge from a broad perspective to more sophisticated definitions. The present review has resulted in two definitions of knowledge. Characteristics of knowledge The following taxonomy of knowledge has been expressed in the KM literature: . Knowledge cannot easily be stored (Gopal and Gagnon, 1995). Knowledge is something that resides in people's . . inds rather than in computers (The Banker, 1997). Unlike raw material, knowledge usually is not coded, audited, inventoried, and stacked in a warehouse for employees to use as needed. It is scattered, messy, and easy to lose (Galagan, 1997). Furthermore, Allee (1997a) has defined knowledge in terms of 12 qualities: knowledge is messy; it is self-organising; it seeks community; it travels on language; it is slippery; it likes looseness; it experiments; it does not grow forever; it is a social phenomenon; it evolves organically; it is multi-modal; and it is multi-dimensional.To use the flow of data/informatio n we must develop effective ways to make the input of and access to information easy (Mayo, 1998) and to sort the useful from the useless (Schaefer, 1998). We must develop systems where people are able to â€Å"navigate† effectively. This can be made by storing the information in different databases and make it possible for people to cross-reference and link documents speedily and easily (Mayo, 1998). Information has little value and will not become knowledge until it is processed by the human mind (Ash, 1998).Knowledge involves the processing, creation, or use of information in the mind of the individual (Kirchner, 1997). Although information is not knowledge, it is an important aspect of knowledge. The process begins with facts and data, which are organised and structured to produce general information. The next stage involves organising and filtering this information to meet the requirements of a specific community of users, producing contextual information. Next, individu als assimilate the contextual information and transform it into knowledge.This transformation process is affected by individuals' experiences, attitudes, and the context in which they work. The final stage of the continuum is behaviour; unless information and knowledge lead to an informed decision or action, the whole process becomes invalidated (Infield, 1997). Knowledge should be studied in context. Knowledge is information combined with experience, context, interpretation, reflection, and perspective (Davenport et al. , 1998; Kirchner, 1997; Frappaolo, 208 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson EJournal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 . 1997) that adds a new level of insight (Frappaolo, 1997). Allee (1997b) suggests that knowledge becomes meaningful when it is seen in the larger context of our culture, which evolves out of our beliefs and philosophy. The final characteristic is that knowledge is ineffectual if it is not used. Knowledge is a high-value form of information that is ready to be applied to decisions and actions (Davenport et al. , 1998). Sveiby (1997) has defined it as the capacity to act on information and thereby make it valuable.Knowledge management as a management tool KM is often described as a management tool. More precisely, it is described either as an operational tool or as a strategically focused management tool. Knowledge management as an information handling tool Within the field of KM (Figure 3), knowledge is often regarded as an information handling problem. It deals with the creation, management and exploitation of knowledge. Some of the literature fits into a definition of KM that consists of separate but related stages. The first two stages are invariably linked, both on abstract theoretical grounds and in practice.As the first step in the process, there is acquisition of information. In the second stage, the information is entered into a storage system and organised logically. Almost every definition of knowledge management includes the storage of knowledge (e. g. Yeh et al. , 2000; Blake, 1998, 2000; Mayo, 1998; Anthes, 1998; Cole-Gomolski, 1997a, 1997b, 1998; Symoens, 1998; Laberis, 1998; Nerney, 1997; Ostro, 1997; InfoWorld, 1997; Watson, 1998; LaPlante, 1997; Ash, 1998; DiMattia and Oder, 1997; Hibbard, 1997; Finerty, 1997; Bassi, 1997).KM is about acquisition and storage of workers' knowledge and making information accessible to other employees within the organisation. This is often achieved by using various technologies such as Internet and databases, and is a conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge (Papows, 1998). Once the information is stored in the various databases, the third stage is initiated. In this stage, the stored information is made accessible to as many employees as possible within the organisation (LaPlante, 1997).It is about distributing it into the hands of the right end users at the right time (Ost ro, 1997) and where it can be of best use (Nerney, 1997). The final stage is about utilisation of information. This process begins with people sharing knowledge by talking and socialising with one another or by exchanging information in digital or analogue form (Laberis, 1998). Tacit and explicit knowledge Another way of defining knowledge is to make a distinction between â€Å"tacit† and â€Å"explicit† knowledge (Polyani, 1966).Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) make the same point in more precise terms: . Explicit knowledge is documented and public; structured, fixed-content, externalised, and conscious (Duffy, 2000). Explicit knowledge is what can be captured and shared through information technology. . Tacit knowledge resides in the human mind, behaviour, and perception (Duffy, 2000). Tacit knowledge evolves from people's interactions and requires skill and practice. Nonaka and Takeuchi suggest that tacit knowledge is hidden and thus cannot be easily represented via elect ronics.Tacit refers to hunches, intuitions and insights (Guth, 1996), it is personal, undocumented, contextsensitive, dynamically created and derived, internalised and experience-based (Duffy, 2000). Nonaka and Takeuchi mean that knowledge is the product of the interaction of explicit and tacit knowledge. The process of creating knowledge results in a spiralling of knowledge acquisition. It starts with people sharing their internal tacit knowledge by socialising with others or by capturing it in digital or analogue form. Other people then internalise the shared knowledge, and that process creates new knowledge.These people, with the newly created knowledge, then share this knowledge with others, and the process begins again. Hibbard (1997) articulated this process as innovation. 209 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 Figure 3 The stages of knowledge management Knowl edge management as a strategic management tool KM and its implications are frequently discussed at seminars and conferences. The number of companies claiming to work with knowledge management is growing steadily.Several surveys have been conducted to determine how many organisations are working or planning to work with KM (Nerney, 1997; Hibbard and Carrillo, 1998; Cole-Gomolski, 1998). A recurrent problem with these studies is that the concepts (e. g. the use of KM) are seldom defined. This uncertainty has made it difficult to draw the desired inferences from the results of these studies. The surveys are attempts to either implement KM strategies or implement measurement systems on how to measure different intangible assets, or a combination of both. The central idea underlying a strategy is that organisations must adjust their capabilities (i. . their resources and skills) to a constantly changing complex external E environment (Teece, in Gronhaug and Nordhaug, 1992). Gopal and Gag non (1995) put it succinctly when they maintain that effective KM starts with a strategy. Within a KM strategy, knowledge is recognised as an organisation's most valuable and under-used resource and places the intellectual capital at the centre of what an organisation does (Ash, 1998). To start to create a KM strategy, an organisation needs to build systems for capturing and transferring internal knowledge and best practices (Allerton, 1998).The purpose, goal and expected outcomes of an organisation's work with KM are many. For instance, KM can be seen as a way to improve performance (Ostro, 1997; Bassi, 1997), productivity and competitiveness (Maglitta, 1995), a way to improve effective acquisition, sharing and usage of information within organisations (Maglitta, 1995), a tool for improved decision making (People Management, 1998; Cole-Gomolski, 1997a, 1997b), a way to capture best practices (ColeGomolski, 1998), a way to reduce research costs and delays (Maglitta, 1995), and a way o become a more innovative organisation (People Management, 1998; Hibbard, 1997). A study by the American Productivity and Quality Center shows that 89 per cent of the participants in the study said that the core goal for knowledge management is to capture and transfer knowledge and best practices (Allerton, 1998). People Management (1998) reports on a survey in which individuals responsible for implementing KM strategy were interviewed.The results indicated that the main obstacles to implementation were lack of ownership of the problem (64 per cent), lack of time (60 per cent), organisational structure (54 per cent), senior management commitment (46 per cent), rewards and recognition (46 per cent), and an emphasis on individuals rather than on teamwork (45 per cent). Among â€Å"Fortune 1000† companies the main problems with KM projects are a lack of focus and a lot of reinventing the wheel (Coleman, 1998).Based on an extensive multi-firm study by the American Productivity and Quality Center, hurdles to KM include the lack of a commonly held model for knowledge creation and dissemination and the absence of systems or processes designed to support and evaluate the effectiveness of KM (Ostro, 1997). Most firms with a KM system based purely on a technology solution have found that such an approach fails. Though technology may be necessary for KM, it appears never to be sufficient (Warren, 1999; Bassi, 1997).To successfully create and implement a knowledge management strategy, authors have suggested that certain critical elements must be included. The elements I have found to be of particular importance are the following: . the â€Å"so what? † question; . support from top management; . communication; . creativity; . culture and people; . sharing knowledge; . incentives; . time; . evaluation. 210 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 The importance of the â€Å"so what? ‘ questions A KM strategy should be linked to what the organisation is attempting to achieve. It is also important to articulate the purpose of the KM strategy. What benefits does the organisation expect to gain from their work with KM? How will it affect the employees' work? (Klaila, 2000) The importance of support from top management The personnel function should focus on top management to encourage processes that will promote cross-boundary learning and sharing. This includes helping to set up and, possibly, fund knowledge networks, as well as defining and developing the skills of learning from other people (Mayo, 1998).Organisations that have achieved the greatest success in KM are those that have appointed a senior-level executive to assume the mantle of full-time chief knowledge officer (Gopal and Gagnon, 1995). The importance of communication Saunders (in Ash, 1998) found that the missing factor in strategic management texts was com munication. According to the consultants, a large proportion of the organisations failed to implement the strategies because of a lack of communication. Only a few companies designed a â€Å"good† communication plan to follow through on business strategies.After reviewing nearly 200 articles and conference proceedings on data warehousing, Keen (1997) was struck by how little is said about action  ± â€Å"real† people making â€Å"real† decisions to have a â€Å"real† impact. They do not look at how those real people become informed. The importance of creativity As Kao (1997) notes, a good strategy to work with KM issues is not enough. The author describes the link between strategy and creativity. A connection between these two allows organisations to survive in the future.The implications of business creativity will depend upon the type of fusion created between KM and the basic skills of creativity management (Kao, 1997). The importance of culture and people Successful implementation of KM is linked to such entities as culture and people. In a recent study where the importance of people, as opposed to technology and processes, was examined when implementing a KM strategy, 70 per cent reported that employees are the most important factor and 75 per cent reported that there should be an even greater emphasis on people (People Management, 1998).In the view of the best-practice organisations, people and culture are at the heart of creating a successful knowledgebased organisation. Several studies have shown that people and cultural issues are the most difficult problems to resolve, but produce the greatest benefits (People Management, 1998). The biggest challenge for KM is not a technical one  ± it can be integrated into any number of IT systems  ± but a cultural one (Forbes, 1997; Koudsi, 2000). It is the difficult task of overcoming cultural barriers, especially the sentiment that holding information is more aluable than sharin g it (Warren, 1999; Anthes, 1998). This is supported by Hadley Reynolds, at Delphi Group, in Boston who released a study demonstrating that corporate culture was cited by 53 per cent of the respondents as being the biggest obstacle to deploying KM applications (Cole-Gomolski, 1997b). In another study (People Management, 1998), culture was seen by 80 per cent of those surveyed as the biggest obstacle in creating a knowledge-based organisation. The importance of sharing knowledge The ability to share knowledge and collaborate are all too often missing in our organisations (Mayo, 1998).Efforts to deploy KM group-ware are frequently met with employee reluctance to share their expertise (Cole-Gomolski, 1997b). The likely reason for this is that employees are competitive by nature and may be more inclined to hoard than share the knowledge they possess (Forbes, 1997). On the other hand, a better process of sharing knowledge benefits the firm. This is shown in a study of 33 organisations co nducted by the American Productivity and Quality Center (Alter, 1997). Ostro (1997) reports the results of an extensive multi-firm study by the American Productivity and Quality Center.He found that the main reason why knowledge was not being shared was that employees did not realise their experiences would be valuable to others. Mayo (1998) feels that recruiters should look for capabilities to share knowledge with 211 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 new employees, as well as assessing what new knowledge they can bring to an organisation.Part of the introduction process for recruits should involve â€Å"capturing† their knowledge and experience. Although most new employees bring useful specialist experience with them, few people tap this rich reservoir of information. Meanwhile, the introduction should also be about passing on the experience of predecessor s to new employees. Mayo states that: When people leave, the HR department asks for their company car keys and so on. Why not conduct a recruitment interview in reverse to retrieve information? nd that the pivotal role is played by culture; by an unquestioned, even unconscious, code that encourages knowledge sharing and cooperative behaviour (The Banker, 1997). The importance of time It is important to create time and opportunities for people to learn. One successful approach is to create formal learning networks so that the identification and transfer of effective practices become part of the job (Galagan, 1997). The greatest enemies of knowledge sharing are the time that is required to input and access information and the lack of motivation among potential users (Mayo, 1998).The importance of evaluation It is important to create a system for evaluating the attempts that are made to use KM. The evaluation system can range from informal attempts, such as talking to people about how â€Å"best practice† is shared within the firm, or to the use of far more sophisticated tools to measure the outcomes. To summarise, to implement a KM strategy successfully both the creation and the leverage of knowledge must be taken into account. He also points out that there is an unwillingness to trust employees with information.A favourite excuse given by organisations that withhold information is one of â€Å"commercial sensitivity†, which reflects an unwillingness to trust employees with information. Salary surveys are a good example of this. In how many organisations are such data freely available to all interested employees? The importance of incentives One of the most important issues when working on a KM strategy is to create the right incentives for people to share and apply knowledge (The Banker, 1997). The personal reward systems must support the culture of sharing knowledge (Keeler, 2000; Mayo, 1998).To improve this process it is crucial to reward employ ees that contribute their expertise and to make sure employees understand the benefits of KM (ColeGomolski, 1997b). The organisations should ask themselves the following questions: Are the employees receiving signals that encourage the process of sharing knowledge? What criterion is used for promoting staff? Are instances in which the business has benefited from sharing learning publicly celebrated? Are mistakes made that could have been avoided if it had been known that similar errors had happened in the past (Mayo, 1998)?A problem with many reward systems and incentives for sharing knowledge is that useful knowledge comes from relatively low down in the organisation, from people who are not on incentive systems and probably respond much more readily to the feeling that they belong to highly motivated, leading edge, innovative groups of people. This probably means in the Discussion The literature and theories concerning the management of knowledge have grown remarkably during the p ast couple of years. Nevertheless, what is the contribution from KM?Is it business salvation or the â€Å"emperor's new clothes†? Because of downsizing, organisations have been forced to create systems and processes that decrease the dependencies on the knowledge residing within the individuals. To exploit knowledge more efficiently organisations are now trying to codify and store the individual's knowledge, i. e. making tacit knowledge explicit and transposing individual knowledge into organisational knowledge. Those transformation processes have been made possible through the recent and fast development within IT.Because knowledge is largely tacit and individually owned, it is difficult to have charge of and control over the course of knowledge. The literature review suggests that the major contribution from KM concerns the effort to transpose tacit knowledge into explicit information, which 212 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 will lead to greater possibilities to manage and control knowledge effectively. One major issue that has hardly been dealt with and, therefore, n need of further inquiry concerns how this process of translating tacit into explicit knowledge works. The management of knowledge may be examined from two theoretical perspectives. One perspective involves theories where the focus is on the individual's knowledge; the second comprises theories wherein the knowledge itself is the centre of interest. Human capital is defined by Flamholtz (1985) as â€Å"the knowledge, skills and experience of people†. Within human capital theories, the employee is regarded as the bearer of knowledge.Another perspective, in which knowledge is the centre of interest, is the knowledge-based theory of the firm. In such theories, the individual exists but the focus is more on knowledge than the individual. The two perspectives could be described as being either individualistic or holistic. From a holistic view the sum of an organisation is more than the sum of the individuals, whereas from an individualistic view, the sum of an organisation is the sum of the individuals (Hollis, 1994). Within the recent theoretical development (i. e. nowledge-based theories of the firm), the focus has shifted from an individual perspective to an emphasis on knowledge residing in the organisation as a whole, i. e. a holistic approach. Mayo (1998) noted that many companies have been managing knowledge for decades but that few companies, whether global or national, use these disciplines on a regular basis. One problem regarding knowledge and KM is to outline its content and domain. This literature review highlights the need to better clarify what we mean when we are using concepts such as â€Å"knowledge† and â€Å"KM†.Carrillo (2000) argues that one can often find the most diverse labels applied to KM. There are al so those who believe that term to be inconsistent because knowledge as such cannot be managed (Carrillo, 2000). The lack of clearly defined concepts has been explored in closely related areas (Johanson et al. , 1998; Grojer and Johanson, 1998; Power, E 1997). Also the boundaries of KM are fuzzy. To illustrate, what are the differences between â€Å"competitive intelligence† (Fleicher, 1998), â€Å"intellectual capital† and KM? Sometimes knowledge is clearly defined in the original source, but too often it is not.Because of the nature of knowledge, the attainment of a formal definition is unlikely. There is thus a need for clarification of what we are talking about whenever the word â€Å"knowledge† is used. A large bulk of the present review is based on an IT perspective. The focus here is more on creating databases for storing information and making the information available, and thus the literature review focuses mainly on explicit knowledge (Warren, 1999). Th e first part of KM, the storage of information, is the one most often described. This is probably because the storage of information is the first and perhaps the easiest phase of KM.However, what is missing is how this information can be used and translated into knowledge and become a part of the organisation's knowledge base. The ambiguity of the distinction between information and knowledge has been a major source of difficulty and, in many articles, the distinction between information and knowledge is not clearly articulated. Duffy (2000) argues that technology vendors have contributed to this confusion. Every technology that ever had anything to do with digitised information is now a KM product, or even a complete KM solution.Knowledge is often used as something similar to information, but information and knowledge are far from synonymous. Tacit knowledge might have begun as information, but because it is processed by the human mind, it can be translated into explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is identical to information; it can be easily stored outside the human mind (e. g. in databases), but nonetheless it cannot be described as knowledge until it has been processed. The impact of KM is a complex field. If KM is used as a strategic tool the outcome is difficult to estimate.The problem to estimate the value of KM remains even if it is used as an operational tool. However, the operative perspective could be considered estimated by the organisation if the tool is used. If it had no value the organisations would not use it. Theoretically, it is easier to determine the value of KM. This is because knowledge, through downsizing, is a scarce resource. Another pertinent topic missing when the value of KM is described in the literature is costs. None of the articles reviewed discussed the connection between the costs in the 213 A critical review of knowledge management as a management toolMaria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 organisation's work and KM. That is, the values created by the management of knowledge are not related to the costs connected to the work. When analysing Roos et al. ‘s (1997, p. 15) model on the conceptual roots of intellectual capital (see Figure 1), we see that all the strategic contributions on knowledge zero in on two essential features: the way knowledge is created and the way it is leveraged into value. Some concepts focus almost exclusively on one point or the other; e. g. he learning organisation concepts mostly examine the mechanism of knowledge development. However, other concepts such as KM are more balanced, focusing on both. The knowledge leverage class is divided into three sub-classes: KM, core competencies, and invisible assets. Likewise, the knowledge development class is divided into three subclasses: learning organisation, conversation management, and innovation. An organisation's work with KM should focus on transposing tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge and see to it that individual knowledge becomes organisational knowledge.This can be explained not only by a need for organisations to better manage knowledge by establishing core competencies for individuals, judging success and performance indicators via recognition of invisible assets, but also for organisations to strive to become an innovative organisation and a learning organisation with a knowledge sharing culture. The final question raised in this paper concerns whether knowledge is always something good? Knowledge is assumed to be generally positive. However, it is untenable to assume that knowledge is always positive and good.Within the framework of knowledgebased theory, it is claimed that the only resource that provides an organisation with sustainable competitive advantages is knowledge. Nonetheless, knowledge as such will not have much value for the organisation in building its competitive advantages since only relevant knowledge can function in such a capacity. To see that the concept of KM will not just vanish as so many other management concepts have done over the years, it is important that KM is not regarded as â€Å"the Jack of all trades†. If this happens, there is the risk that it will probably become â€Å"the master of none†.